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1 age
A n1 ( length of existence) âge m ; at the age of 14 à l'âge de 14 ans ; she's your age elle a ton âge ; to look one's age faire son âge ; to be of retirement age avoir l'âge de la retraite ; to be of school age être en âge d'aller à l'école ; she's twice/half his age elle a le double/la moitié de son âge ; they are of an age ils sont du même âge ; to be of an age when… être à l'âge où… ; act ou be your age! ne fais pas l'enfant! ; you shouldn't be doing that at your age! tu ne devrais pas faire ça à ton âge! ; men of retirement age les hommes en âge de or qui ont l'âge de la retraite ; to come of age atteindre la majorité ; to be of age être majeur/-e ; to be under age Jur être mineur ; age of consent Jur âge légal (for pour) ; to feel one's age se faire vieux/vieille ;3 ( era) ère f, époque f (of de) ; the video/computer age l'ère de la vidéo/de l'ordinateur ; in this day and age à notre époque ; through the ages à travers les âges or les siècles ; the Age of Reason Hist le siècle des lumières ;4 ○ ( long time) ( souvent pl) it's ages since I've played golf ça fait une éternité que je n'ai pas joué au golf ; we haven't been to London for ages nous ne sommes pas allés à Londres depuis une éternité ; it takes ages ou an age to get it right cela prend un temps fou pour le faire correctement ; I've been waiting for ages j'attends depuis des heures. -
2 age
age [eɪdʒ]1. nouna. âge m• what age is she? quel âge a-t-elle ?• act your age! allons, sois raisonnable !b. ( = period of time) époque f4. compounds* * *[eɪdʒ] 1.1) ( length of existence) âge mact ou be your age! — ne fais pas l'enfant!
to be under age — Law être mineur/-e
age of consent — Law âge légal ( for pour)
to feel one's age — se sentir vieux/vieille
2) ( latter part of life)3) ( era) ère f, époque f (of de)4) (colloq) ( long time)2.transitive verb [hairstyle, experiences etc] vieillir [person]3.intransitive verb [person] vieillir -
3 age
[eɪdʒ] I1) (length of existence) età f.act o be your age! non fare il bambino! men of retirement age uomini in età pensionabile; to come, be of age diventare, essere maggiorenne; to be under age — dir. essere minorenne
2) (latter part of life) età f., vecchiaia f.3) (era) età f., era f., epoca f.4) colloq. (long time)II 1.it takes ages o an age to ci vuole una vita per; I've been waiting for ages — aspetto da un'eternità
verbo transitivo [hairstyle, experiences etc.] invecchiare [ person]2.to age sb. 10 years — invecchiare qcn. di 10 anni
verbo intransitivo [ person] invecchiare* * *[ei‹] 1. noun1) (the amount of time during which a person or thing has existed: He went to school at the age of six (years); What age is she?) età2) ((often with capital) a particular period of time: This machine was the wonder of the age; the Middle Ages.) epoca, età3) (the quality of being old: This wine will improve with age; With the wisdom of age he regretted the mistakes he had made in his youth.) età4) ((usually in plural) a very long time: We've been waiting (for) ages for a bus.) secoli, eternità2. verb(to (cause to) grow old or look old: He has aged a lot since I last saw him; His troubles have aged him.) invecchiare- aged- ageless
- age-old
- the aged
- come of age
- of age* * *[eɪdʒ] I1) (length of existence) età f.act o be your age! non fare il bambino! men of retirement age uomini in età pensionabile; to come, be of age diventare, essere maggiorenne; to be under age — dir. essere minorenne
2) (latter part of life) età f., vecchiaia f.3) (era) età f., era f., epoca f.4) colloq. (long time)II 1.it takes ages o an age to ci vuole una vita per; I've been waiting for ages — aspetto da un'eternità
verbo transitivo [hairstyle, experiences etc.] invecchiare [ person]2.to age sb. 10 years — invecchiare qcn. di 10 anni
verbo intransitivo [ person] invecchiare -
4 retirement
HRthe voluntary or forced termination of employment because of age, illness, or disability. Retirement age is often stipulated in the contract of employment. Differences between the retirement ages of men and women are no longer allowed in many countries. Employees may take early retirement from their employer, or may, with the agreement of their employer, take gradual, or phased retirement. A pension may be drawn on reaching retirement age. -
5 age pension
(ANZ) Fina sum of money paid regularly by the government to people who have reached the age of retirement, currently 65 for men and 60 for women -
6 Spínola, Antônio de
(1910-1996)Senior army general, hero of Portugal's wars of African insurgency, and first president of the provisional government after the Revolution of 25 April 1974. A career army officer who became involved in politics after a long career of war service and administration overseas, Spinola had a role in the 1974 coup and revolution that was somewhat analogous to that of General Gomes da Costa in the 1926 coup.Spinola served in important posts as a volunteer in Portugal's intervention in the Spanish Civil War (1936-39), a military observer on the Russian front with the Third Reich's armed forces in World War II, and a top officer in the Guarda Nacional Republicana (GNR). His chief significance in contemporary affairs, however, came following his military assignments and tours of duty in Portugal's colonial wars in Africa after 1961.Spinola fought first in Angola and later in Guinea- Bissau, where, during 1968-73, he was both commanding general of Portugal's forces and high commissioner (administrator of the territory). His Guinean service tour was significant for at least two reasons: Spinola's dynamic influence upon a circle of younger career officers on his staff in Guinea, men who later joined together in the Armed Forces Movement (MFA), and Spinola's experience of failure in winning the Guinea war militarily or finding a political means for compromise or negotiation with the Party for the Independence of Guinea and Cape Verde (PAIGC), the African insurgent movement that had fought a war with Portugal since 1963, largely in the forested tropical interior of the territory. Spinola became discouraged after failure to win permission to negotiate secretly for a political solution to the war with the PAIGC and was reprimanded by Prime Minister Marcello Caetano.After his return—not in triumph—from Guinea in 1973, Spinola was appointed chief of staff of the armed forces, but he resigned in a dispute with the government. With the assistance of younger officers who also had African experience of costly but seemingly endless war, Spinola wrote a book, Portugal and the Future, which was published in February 1974, despite official censorship and red tape. Next to the Bible and editions of Luís de Camoes's The Lusi- ads, Spinola's controversial book was briefly the best-selling work in Portugal's modern age. While not intimately involved with the budding conspiracy among career army majors, captains, and others, Spinola was prepared to head such a movement, and the planners depended on his famous name and position as senior army officer with the right credentials to win over both military and civil opinion when and where it counted.When the Revolution of 25 April 1974 succeeded, Spinola was named head of the Junta of National Salvation and eventually provisional president of Portugal. Among the military revolutionaries, though, there was wide disagreement about the precise goals of the revolution and how to achieve them. Spinola's path-breaking book had subtly proposed three new goals: the democratization of authoritarian Portugal, a political solution to the African colonial wars, and liberalization of the economic system. The MFA immediately proclaimed, not coincidentally, the same goals, but without specifying the means to attain them.The officers who ran the newly emerging system fell out with Spinola over many issues, but especially over how to decolonize Portugal's besieged empire. Spinola proposed a gradualist policy that featured a free referendum by all colonial voters to decide between a loose federation with Portugal or complete independence. MFA leaders wanted more or less immediate decolonization, a transfer of power to leading African movements, and a pullout of Portugal's nearly 200,000 troops in three colonies. After a series of crises and arguments, Spinola resigned as president in September 1974. He conspired for a conservative coup to oust the leftists in power, but the effort failed in March 1975, and Spinola was forced to flee to Spain and then to Brazil. Some years later, he returned to Portugal, lived in quiet retirement, and could be seen enjoying horseback riding. In the early 1980s, he was promoted to the rank of marshal, in retirement. -
7 Seppings, Robert
SUBJECT AREA: Ports and shipping[br]b. 11 December 1767 near Fakenham, Norfolk, Englandd. 25 April 1840 Taunton, Somerset, England[br]English naval architect who as Surveyor to the Royal Navy made fundamental improvements in wooden ship construction.[br]After the death of his father, Seppings at the age of 14 moved to his uncle's home in Plymouth, where shortly after (1782) he was apprenticed to the Master Shipwright. His indentures were honoured fully by 1789 and he commenced his climb up the professional ladder of the ship construction department of the Royal Dockyards. In 1797 he became Assistant Master Shipwright at Plymouth, and in 1804 he was appointed Master Shipwright at Chatham. In 1813 Sir William Rule, Surveyor to the Navy, retired and the number of surveyors was increased to three, with Seppings being appointed the junior. Later he was to become Surveyor to the Royal Navy, a post he held until his retirement in 1832. Seppings introduced many changes to ship construction in the early part of the nineteenth century. It is likely that the introduction of these innovations required positive and confident management, and their acceptance tells us much about Seppings. The best-known changes were the round bow and stern in men-of-war and the alteration to framing systems.The Seppings form of diagonal bracing ensured that wooden ships, which are notorious for hogging (i.e. drooping at the bow and stern), were stronger and therefore able to be built with greater length. This change was complemented by modifications to the floors, frames and futtocks (analogous to the ribs of a ship). These developments were to be taken further once iron composite construction (wooden sheathing on iron frames) was adopted in the United Kingdom mid-century.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsFRS. Knighted (by the Prince Regent aboard the warship Royal George) 1819.BibliographyThroughout his life Seppings produced a handful of pamphlets and published letters, as well as two papers that were published in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society (1814 and 1820).Further ReadingA description of the thinking in the Royal Navy at the beginning of the nineteenth century can be found in: J.Fincham, 1851, A History of Naval Architecture, London; B.Lavery, 1989, Nelson's Navy. The Ships, Men and Organisation 1793–1815, London: Conway.T.Wright, 1982, "Thomas Young and Robert Seppings: science and ship construction in the early nineteenth century", Transactions of the Newcomen Society 53:55–72.Seppings's work can be seen aboard the frigate Unicorn, launched in Chatham in 1824 and now on view to the public at Dundee. Similarly, his innovations in ship construction can be readily understood from many of the models at the National Maritime Museum, Greenwich.FMW -
8 Stephenson, George
[br]b. 9 June 1781 Wylam, Northumberland, Englandd. 12 August 1848 Tapton House, Chesterfield, England[br]English engineer, "the father of railways".[br]George Stephenson was the son of the fireman of the pumping engine at Wylam colliery, and horses drew wagons of coal along the wooden rails of the Wylam wagonway past the house in which he was born and spent his earliest childhood. While still a child he worked as a cowherd, but soon moved to working at coal pits. At 17 years of age he showed sufficient mechanical talent to be placed in charge of a new pumping engine, and had already achieved a job more responsible than that of his father. Despite his position he was still illiterate, although he subsequently learned to read and write. He was largely self-educated.In 1801 he was appointed Brakesman of the winding engine at Black Callerton pit, with responsibility for lowering the miners safely to their work. Then, about two years later, he became Brakesman of a new winding engine erected by Robert Hawthorn at Willington Quay on the Tyne. Returning collier brigs discharged ballast into wagons and the engine drew the wagons up an inclined plane to the top of "Ballast Hill" for their contents to be tipped; this was one of the earliest applications of steam power to transport, other than experimentally.In 1804 Stephenson moved to West Moor pit, Killingworth, again as Brakesman. In 1811 he demonstrated his mechanical skill by successfully modifying a new and unsatisfactory atmospheric engine, a task that had defeated the efforts of others, to enable it to pump a drowned pit clear of water. The following year he was appointed Enginewright at Killingworth, in charge of the machinery in all the collieries of the "Grand Allies", the prominent coal-owning families of Wortley, Liddell and Bowes, with authorization also to work for others. He built many stationary engines and he closely examined locomotives of John Blenkinsop's type on the Kenton \& Coxlodge wagonway, as well as those of William Hedley at Wylam.It was in 1813 that Sir Thomas Liddell requested George Stephenson to build a steam locomotive for the Killingworth wagonway: Blucher made its first trial run on 25 July 1814 and was based on Blenkinsop's locomotives, although it lacked their rack-and-pinion drive. George Stephenson is credited with building the first locomotive both to run on edge rails and be driven by adhesion, an arrangement that has been the conventional one ever since. Yet Blucher was far from perfect and over the next few years, while other engineers ignored the steam locomotive, Stephenson built a succession of them, each an improvement on the last.During this period many lives were lost in coalmines from explosions of gas ignited by miners' lamps. By observation and experiment (sometimes at great personal risk) Stephenson invented a satisfactory safety lamp, working independently of the noted scientist Sir Humphry Davy who also invented such a lamp around the same time.In 1817 George Stephenson designed his first locomotive for an outside customer, the Kilmarnock \& Troon Railway, and in 1819 he laid out the Hetton Colliery Railway in County Durham, for which his brother Robert was Resident Engineer. This was the first railway to be worked entirely without animal traction: it used inclined planes with stationary engines, self-acting inclined planes powered by gravity, and locomotives.On 19 April 1821 Stephenson was introduced to Edward Pease, one of the main promoters of the Stockton \& Darlington Railway (S \& DR), which by coincidence received its Act of Parliament the same day. George Stephenson carried out a further survey, to improve the proposed line, and in this he was assisted by his 18-year-old son, Robert Stephenson, whom he had ensured received the theoretical education which he himself lacked. It is doubtful whether either could have succeeded without the other; together they were to make the steam railway practicable.At George Stephenson's instance, much of the S \& DR was laid with wrought-iron rails recently developed by John Birkinshaw at Bedlington Ironworks, Morpeth. These were longer than cast-iron rails and were not brittle: they made a track well suited for locomotives. In June 1823 George and Robert Stephenson, with other partners, founded a firm in Newcastle upon Tyne to build locomotives and rolling stock and to do general engineering work: after its Managing Partner, the firm was called Robert Stephenson \& Co.In 1824 the promoters of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway (L \& MR) invited George Stephenson to resurvey their proposed line in order to reduce opposition to it. William James, a wealthy land agent who had become a visionary protagonist of a national railway network and had seen Stephenson's locomotives at Killingworth, had promoted the L \& MR with some merchants of Liverpool and had carried out the first survey; however, he overreached himself in business and, shortly after the invitation to Stephenson, became bankrupt. In his own survey, however, George Stephenson lacked the assistance of his son Robert, who had left for South America, and he delegated much of the detailed work to incompetent assistants. During a devastating Parliamentary examination in the spring of 1825, much of his survey was shown to be seriously inaccurate and the L \& MR's application for an Act of Parliament was refused. The railway's promoters discharged Stephenson and had their line surveyed yet again, by C.B. Vignoles.The Stockton \& Darlington Railway was, however, triumphantly opened in the presence of vast crowds in September 1825, with Stephenson himself driving the locomotive Locomotion, which had been built at Robert Stephenson \& Co.'s Newcastle works. Once the railway was at work, horse-drawn and gravity-powered traffic shared the line with locomotives: in 1828 Stephenson invented the horse dandy, a wagon at the back of a train in which a horse could travel over the gravity-operated stretches, instead of trotting behind.Meanwhile, in May 1826, the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway had successfully obtained its Act of Parliament. Stephenson was appointed Engineer in June, and since he and Vignoles proved incompatible the latter left early in 1827. The railway was built by Stephenson and his staff, using direct labour. A considerable controversy arose c. 1828 over the motive power to be used: the traffic anticipated was too great for horses, but the performance of the reciprocal system of cable haulage developed by Benjamin Thompson appeared in many respects superior to that of contemporary locomotives. The company instituted a prize competition for a better locomotive and the Rainhill Trials were held in October 1829.Robert Stephenson had been working on improved locomotive designs since his return from America in 1827, but it was the L \& MR's Treasurer, Henry Booth, who suggested the multi-tubular boiler to George Stephenson. This was incorporated into a locomotive built by Robert Stephenson for the trials: Rocket was entered by the three men in partnership. The other principal entrants were Novelty, entered by John Braithwaite and John Ericsson, and Sans Pareil, entered by Timothy Hackworth, but only Rocket, driven by George Stephenson, met all the organizers' demands; indeed, it far surpassed them and demonstrated the practicability of the long-distance steam railway. With the opening of the Liverpool \& Manchester Railway in 1830, the age of railways began.Stephenson was active in many aspects. He advised on the construction of the Belgian State Railway, of which the Brussels-Malines section, opened in 1835, was the first all-steam railway on the European continent. In England, proposals to link the L \& MR with the Midlands had culminated in an Act of Parliament for the Grand Junction Railway in 1833: this was to run from Warrington, which was already linked to the L \& MR, to Birmingham. George Stephenson had been in charge of the surveys, and for the railway's construction he and J.U. Rastrick were initially Principal Engineers, with Stephenson's former pupil Joseph Locke under them; by 1835 both Stephenson and Rastrick had withdrawn and Locke was Engineer-in-Chief. Stephenson remained much in demand elsewhere: he was particularly associated with the construction of the North Midland Railway (Derby to Leeds) and related lines. He was active in many other places and carried out, for instance, preliminary surveys for the Chester \& Holyhead and Newcastle \& Berwick Railways, which were important links in the lines of communication between London and, respectively, Dublin and Edinburgh.He eventually retired to Tapton House, Chesterfield, overlooking the North Midland. A man who was self-made (with great success) against colossal odds, he was ever reluctant, regrettably, to give others their due credit, although in retirement, immensely wealthy and full of honour, he was still able to mingle with people of all ranks.[br]Principal Honours and DistinctionsPresident, Institution of Mechanical Engineers, on its formation in 1847. Order of Leopold (Belgium) 1835. Stephenson refused both a knighthood and Fellowship of the Royal Society.Bibliography1815, jointly with Ralph Dodd, British patent no. 3,887 (locomotive drive by connecting rods directly to the wheels).1817, jointly with William Losh, British patent no. 4,067 (steam springs for locomotives, and improvements to track).Further ReadingL.T.C.Rolt, 1960, George and Robert Stephenson, Longman (the best modern biography; includes a bibliography).S.Smiles, 1874, The Lives of George and Robert Stephenson, rev. edn, London (although sycophantic, this is probably the best nineteenthcentury biography).PJGR -
9 Bunsen, Robert Wilhelm
SUBJECT AREA: Chemical technology[br]b. 31 March 1811 Göttingen, Germanyd. 16 August 1899 Heidelberg, Germany[br]German chemist, pioneer of chemical spectroscopy.[br]Bunsen's father was Librarian and Professor of Linguistics at Göttingen University and Bunsen himself studied chemistry there. Obtaining his doctorate at the age of only 19, he travelled widely, meeting some of the leading chemists of the day and visiting many engineering works. On his return he held various academic posts, finally as Professor of Chemistry at Heidelberg in 1852, a post he held until his retirement in 1889.During 1837–41 Bunsen studied a series of compounds shown to contain the cacodyl (CH3)2As-group or radical. The elucidation of the structure of these compounds gave support to the radical theory in organic chemistry and earned him fame, but it also cost him the sight of an eye and other ill effects resulting from these dangerous and evil-smelling substances. With the chemist Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–87), Bunsen pioneered the use of spectroscopy in chemical analysis from 1859, and with its aid he discovered the elements caesium and rubidium. He developed the Bunsen cell, a zinc-carbon primary cell, with which he isolated a number of alkali and other metals by electrodeposition from solution or electrolysis of fused chlorides.Bunsen's main work was in chemical analysis, in the course of which he devised some important laboratory equipment, such as a filter pump. The celebrated Bunsen gas burner was probably devised by his technician Peter Desdega. During 1838–44 Bunsen applied his methods of gas analysis to the study of the gases produced by blast furnaces for the production of cast iron. He demonstrated that no less than 80 per cent of the heat was lost during smelting, and that valuable gaseous by-products, such as ammonia, were also lost. Lyon Playfair in England was working along similar lines, and in 1848 the two men issued a paper, "On the gases evolved from iron furnaces", to draw attention to these drawbacks.[br]Bibliography1904, Bunsen's collected papers were published in 3 vols, Leipzig.Further ReadingG.Lockemann, 1949, Robert Wilhelm Bunsen: Lebensbild eines deutschen Forschers, Stuttgart.T.Curtin, 1961, biog. account, in E.Farber (ed.), Great Chemists, New York, pp. 575–81. Henry E.Roscoe, 1900, "Bunsen memorial lecture, 29th March 1900", Journal of theChemical Society 77:511–54.LRD
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